Writing Across the Curriculum

“Inspiration usually comes during work rather than before it. “ Madeline L’Engle

Contoocook Valley School District

March 13^th , 2007

Meg Petersen

megp@mail.plymouth.edu

Writing Across the Curriculum: Summary of Principles

· Writing is not only a way of communicating or expressing knowledge, but a powerful way of thinking and learning.

· Students clarify their understandings of content material through exploratory writing assignments which enable them to consider class material in new ways.

· Content understanding shines though in student writing. This type of writing gives content instructors a window into students’ thinking about the subject

· Writing activities, properly designed, can help students structure and synthesize knowledge, rather than merely regurgitating it.

· Providing audiences for student writing, real or imaginary, (preferably real) will allow students to have a sense of writing for someone other than the teacher, and will help them to better understand material.

· Writing activities that allow the student to play the role of learner and researcher are especially effective.

· The process of writing is important

· time spent with prewriting, will help students acquire a solid grasp of the material, and organize their understandings

· it is important to provide assistance and support as students write, helping them solve problems as they arise, rather than waiting until they turn in the paper.

· Let students respond to each other’s papers. Provide support through response forms and guidelines. Give class time to that purpose.

· Teach revision before copy-editing, having students clarify the content and substance of their work before turning to questions of spelling, mechanics, usage, etc.

· As often as possible, more formal assignments should be directed to real purposes and audiences. Display or otherwise publish student writing through shows, demonstrations, book-publishing (duplicated or one of a kind), oral readings etc. Don’t be the only reader of your students’ work.

· Keep content at the center of the writing process.

Reasons to Teach Writing in the Content Areas:

1. Writing about a subject helps students to learn that subject better.

2. Writing about content has special payoffs:

-short-term: better writing

-long-term: successful writers at higher levels of education and in life

-better retention of content knowledge

3. Content writing often motivates reluctant writers

4. Content writing develops language skills

5. Teaching writing teaches thinking.

from Teaching Writing in the Content Areas Stephen N. and Susan J. Tchudi

Reasons for Assigning Writing

Fear in inhibits learning. Students are afraid to try, so it is useful to structure assignments based around the alleviation of fear. Students will only learn if they feel safe to take risks. Curiosity leads to courage. Writing helps to get to the WHY of what you are doing. WAC gives students courage.

Begin with a Sequence of Audiences—

• Self – We start with the easiest audience, which is the self. For the first assignments, students write only for themselves
• Peer Groups—perhaps at first the most trusted ones.
• Teacher
• Specialized Audiences
• Public Audiences

Writing

· Gives students a mode for self-expression, creative thought, musing

· forces students to read assignments by deadline

· make students active learners.

· helps students push deeper into a subject

· enhances storage of information, understanding, recall

· teaches students some things about writing:

· focus, organization, evidence, style

· conventions of writing in a particular discipline

· polish in spelling, punctuation, grammar

· Provides feedback for the instructor

· find out who needs help

· provides a way to track class progress in order to help with planning.

from: Helping Students Write Well 2^nd Edition, Barbara E. Fassler Walvoord

Levels of Writing Assignments

Informal- This level of writing is first-draft. The main purpose is to generate ideas for discussion or for further work. If collected, it should not be evaluated for form or grammatical correctness. Normally, it is only credited as having been completed. It may be evaluated on a check minus or plus system based on the content. Often it is used in class or for the student’s own purposes and is never collected at all. Some examples of this type of writing would include:

· in-class free writing

· responses to questions in class

· reactions to assignments

· brainstorming, listing of ideas

· journal responses

Draft- This type of writing is an intermediate stage. Both form and content are taken into consideration, but not as stringently as they would be in more formal writing. Response to draft writing varies according to the level to which it has evolved. Generally, one responds to the content first, then to the organization and language and finally to the level of polish or correctness. The focus of response to this writing is often on revision. Thus the teacher thinks of what might be the one or two things which would improve this writing most Avoid grading this type of writing until it has moved to the next stage.

Formal- Formal writing represents the revised forms of draft writing. This type of writing should represent the best writing of which the student is capable, in terms of content, form and polish. Ideally, teachers should be able to evaluate this kind of writing in all of these dimensions. In a content class, however, the focus should always remain most strongly on the content. Other issues should be presented in terms of how they facilitate the reader’s understanding of what students are expressing about content. Examples of this type of writing include:

· essays

· creative pieces—short stories, poems, plays, etc.

· lab reports

· article reviews

· research and multi-genre research papers

· three-search papers

You should always make clear to students the level of formality you expect in any given writing assignment, and stress to them that they should always take care with their writing.

Free Writing

· the purpose is to generate ideas quickly, to associate and free the mind. Free writing is a lot like free association. It generates lots of ideas for you to work with later.

· it is an all-purpose generating technique which is transferable to many different situations.

· set a time limit and stick to it (ten minutes often works well). You can always write more later.

· write rapidly, try to keep the pen moving on the page.

· Use whatever shortcuts you like (e.g. “&” for “and”).

· Let your words chart your thinking path (which means digressing is just fine—maybe even desirable).

· If you can’t think of anything to write about, write that, but keep writing.

· Don’t edit. Pay no attention to spelling, grammar, word choice, etc. This is first-draft writing and thinking.

Using Journals or Learning Logs in Class

· to start discussions

· to focus attention

· to summarize lessons

· to re-orient lost classes

· to respond to readings, films, field trips and speakers

· to generate paper topics and research projects

· to speculate about data, observations, and information

· to create a personal dialogue with students

· to monitor class progress (for both teacher and student)

· to let off steam…

· to relax and enjoy writing

· to record intellectual and emotional growth

· to keep a record of one’s learning

· to engage all parts of the brain in the learning of material.

· to work through problems, sort out decisions

· to practice or try something out.

· to work through confusions about the material

How Journals help the Class

· increase student confidence

· increase oral responses

· de-center authority

· encourage independent thought

· affirm affective domains

· reduce grade pressure

· replace quizzes, tests, and talk

· monitor class progress

Some Content Area Examples of Writing Activities

Fine Arts

· In music, write lyrics that may be set to music or read with accompaniment

· Write assessments of performances or artifacts—their own or others

· Write descriptions of art done by students or established artists

· Write a critique of your own artistic performance

· Explain your motivation for performing or creating a particular work.

· Write an artist’s note about how you created a particular work of art.

· Write a poem or other creative response to art.

Mathematics

· Explain the steps involved in solving a problem to someone else

· Write story problems to illustrate mathematical concepts, swap and solve.

· Write a description of your own strengths and weaknesses in math and offer suggestions for improvement.

· Keep a math journal of your insights and frustrations

· Study a graph and translate its meaning into sentences

· Write weekly letters to your parents or other audience explaining what you have learned in math

· Write a letter to next year’s math class explaining what they will learn

· Write questions about what you do not understand

· Create real life sequences in which math is used to solve a problem.

English and Drama

· Write from the point of view of a literary character

· Create works in the same form as those under study

· Write diaries from the author’s point of view about intention.

· Select and respond to quotes form literary works.

· Write pithy quotes

· Write open ended questions about the reading

· Write about what happens before or after the action in a play or novel.

· Write in the style of a particular author.

Science

· Keep journals of lab experiments

· Write imaginative accounts from inside organisms

· Explain a scientific principle to a younger child

· Write opinion papers or letters to the editor on scientific issues

· Interview a scientist about his or her research and prepare a report.

· Make predictions about the future based on present trends or data.

· Write a summary of what you learned in science this week for the class across the hall. They respond. Collaborate and come to a consensus. Create a summary.

· Make a drawing which represents your understanding of our topic. Each group gets up and shows and explains their drawing. Put them up around the room.

· Go home without your textbook or your notes and write a “neuron note”. “You have had a whole unit about whatever. Now without notes or books, write what you think you understand.”

· Teacher may respond on cassette tape—start out with a compliment. Talk them through and coach them. Refer back to their text.

• Arrange study sessions after school to observe how students study the material.
• Write a non-fiction children’s book on a scientific topic.

Social Science

· Make a list of what you see on a map. Share with peers. Steal from others’ lists

· Write down in one sentence something you know to be true about “Manifest Destiny” or any other concept you are introducing.

· Put 8-10 statements on the board.. Search for the truth. Must rewrite the sentence so it is the truth and cannot be argued with (teaches specificity)

· Write down a question you have about the map. Collect the questions on the board.

· Create a question basket—write anonymously at the start of the unit.

· Take a picture out of the textbook—Write what the people in the picture smell, what they see, what they hear, etc.

· Assume the role of one of the persons in that photo—what would they write in a diary about this event?

· Before starting a unit related to a particular place, have students draw a map of that place as best they can, and list everything they know about the place. Share in groups and then with the whole class.

· Write about a single event from two different points of view.

· Explain what two events have in common historically

· Conduct field research (interviews and polling) and write up results)

· Become a historical figure and write letters to specific audiences or keep a diary

· Keep a journal recording news references to a particular topic

· Create a case study illustrating a psychological principle

· Explain a historical event to a child—or write a non-fiction children’s picture book on the topic.

· Write letters of personal reaction to historical events, current events, etc.

Some Nifty techniques for opening up expression in any area:

What ifs

Explore hypothetical absences in a content area:

· What if Abraham Lincoln had not been elected president?

· What if people didn’t sweat during and after exercise?

· What if George had not killed Lenny?

Three Words

In this activity, students first choose three words that best describe some content topic—for example, a character, an event, a phenomenon… then students write about why these three words best capture the essence of what was read or studied.

· What three words best describe problems in the American diet?

· What three words best describe the bill of rights?

· What three words best describe global climate change?

Take a Stand

As the name implies, students cannot sit on the fence with this activity. They debate issues relevant to a content area. Writing may precede or follow discussion.

· Gerrymandering by other than geographic location should not be permitted.

· Genetic testing should be required of all potential parents.

· Predictions of the earth being overpopulated by 2020 are not supported by mathematical projections.

Adapted from Strong, William Write for Insight: Empowering Content Learning, Grades 6-12 Boston: Pearson, 2006

Ideas for Using Writing to Spark Participation

Probably every teacher at any level has had a class at one time or another which was shy about participation, reluctant to express their responses to class material. No teacher relishes trying to initiate discussion when no one has anything to say. Usually the problem is related to the students having insufficient time to process the material before having to answer—the problem may also be related to a lack of confidence in what they have to say. Try the following methods of using writing to give students time to think about the material before responding.

· Have them choose and copy two quotes from the text which they found especially thought-provoking, confusing or meaningful. Exchange papers with a partner, or pass them two seats to the left. The partner should choose one of the quotes to free‑write on for ten minutes (more or less depending on the class). Share their free‑writes with the each other. Pick one to share with the class.

· Write three open‑ended questions about the material. Exchange questions for discussion with a partner, or bring the questions to the whole class.

· With a partner, hold a written conversation about the text. Students should initiate discussion with a question or two, exchange papers and respond to each others’ questions. I find this works better with two papers going back and forth at the same time for each pair. This works especially well with texts the students meet "cold" in class.

· Prepare a numbered list of open‑ended discussion questions about the material. Plan sufficient questions to give you optimal sized groups for your class. Give one question to each student. Have them write on their question for five minutes, then meet in groups with everyone who had the same question. Each group will then report on their discussion to the class.

· Have groups of students write discussion questions together about the material. Exchange questions with another group.

· Give them a question about the material to free‑write on for ten minutes. Ask them to identify the most important idea in their free‑write. Go around the room and have everyone read the underlined portion of their free‑write without comment. Ask the class to summarize what has been said in response to the question. This is a good non-threatening way to hear the voices of shier students in the class.

· Have the class each write two connections they can make from the material to something else they have studied or to their own lives. Go around the room and each share one of these connections.

· Prior to class, have students illustrate some aspect of the text. Pass their illustrations around in small groups. Each group member should comment on the pictures and give their interpretations before the artist explains the work. I have found that very different interpretations can emerge in this way.

· Ask students to create a poem from the material, using the words of the text and expressing their understanding of the concepts in poetic form. Share these with partners or with the whole class.

· Have students write a story to illustrate the concepts in the material. In a math or science class, they might have to write a story which incorporates the use of some particular theory. In a history class, they might write historical fiction. Share these with the class.

Many of these suggestions are useful in dealing with other participation concerns as well, such as the domination of discussion by several group members, or uneven participation between boys and girls. All are designed to help students feel comfortable with their own responses to the material.

Poetry Across the Curriculum

Why Use Poetry in the Content Class?

· good content makes good poetry

· poetry writing taps into the imagination, the unconscious, underlying knowledge structures

· poetry allows students to make new connections, to look at course material from different perspectives, to think in new ways

· poetry allows the student to be surprised by new insights

· poetry helps students connect to the material on an emotional level.

· a poetic response brings content to life and makes it more memorable.

· this approach supports different learning styles

· reasoning through analogy and metaphor, which poetry encourages, are generally recognized as strategies of successful writers and thinkers in every discipline

· poetry writing about content requires synthesis of material

· writing a poem helps students to understand and internalize material in a different way

· poetry is a concentrated language—word choice matters, as does connotation, nuances of meaning. Poetry is the perfect medium for language study.

Ten Design Principles for Writing Assignments

1. Create topics that require inventive thinking and avoid topics that invite clichés or a straight listing of factual information. A vague assignment with confusing directions invites dull, vacuous responses.

2. Select topics that have a purpose. Have a reason for your assignment and communicate that reason.

3. Make sure your topics are meaningful in your students’ experience.

4. Design topics to elicit specific, immediate responses from your students. For example, contrast “Discuss freedom” and “List freedoms you enjoy and freedoms you are denied. Discuss the reasons for the denials. To what extent do you accept the reasons? Write an essay on the topic.”

5. If you use a hypothetical situation, be sure it is within your students’ grasp.

6. Use specific terms such as define, illustrate, persuade, compare, analyze, evaluate or invent. Talk to your students about what these terms mean. Specify the steps you want your students to follow in an assignment, particularly the prewriting steps such as interviewing, listing, clustering, etc.

7. Use creative formats for at least some of your assignments.

8. Try to specify context, audience, the role of the writer, format and topic—this makes a nifty acronym (CRAFT). You don’t need to follow it slavishly, but it can be a good check on lackluster assignments.

9. Whenever possible, give students a choice of writing assignments and topics. This increases motivation and adds to the variety of your own reading.

10. Define the criteria for evaluation of student writing. The more explicit you are, the more likely they will be able to meet your expectations. More specific criteria can actually free students to be more thoughtful and creative.

Adapted from Strong, William Write for Insight: Empowering Content Learning, Grades 6-12 Boston: Pearson, 2006
Making Writing Assignments: Ten Suggestions

1. Prepare a context for each assignment through reading, discussion, journal writing, etc.

2. Allow time for process: thinking, incubating, revising, editing and response.

3. Ask students to develop authority, to write about what they know, not what you already know.

4. Put assignment directions in writing: explain your expectations clearly

5. Show models of student writing which successfully address the assignment

6. Encourage peer group collaborations: research, revising, editing, publishing

7. Ask students to write for a variety of audiences: self, friend, classmate, teacher, public.

8. Assign several short papers in place of one long one.

9. Write the assignments yourself; watch how you do it; show students your writing as you revise and refine it.

10. Integrate writing into the daily activity in your classroom.

A Brief Word about Grading

· Don’t grade informal writing assignments (free writes, journals, in-class activities) beyond a check plus or minus level.

· Postpone grading of longer assignments as long as possible to allow time for feedback and revision. Grading tends to cut this process short.

· Consider moving to a portfolio system of evaluation.